World of Gor

There are two systems of courts on Gor--those of the City, under the jurisdiction of an Administrator or Ubar, and those of the Initiates, under the jurisdiction of the High Initiate of the given city; the division corresponds roughly to that between civil and what, for lack of a better word, might be called ecclesiastical courts. The areas of jurisdiction of these two types of courts are not well defined; the Initiates claim ultimate jurisdiction in all matters, in virtue of their supposed relation to the Priest-Kings, but this claim is challenged by civil jurists. ...
---Tarnsman of Gor, 18:194

Such is how Tarl Cabot speaks of the legal systems that would appear to share the powers on his world. The comparison which is drawn between the civil and ecclesiastical courts of earth may indeed be more accurate than Tarl Cabot seemed to think. When he speaks of how for all intents and purposes, the Initiates felt that they had the right to rule over all and any matters, we can fairly quickly associate with the role which was imparted on the churches of less recent times.

The second part of the statement is also quite reminiscent of our church system where a number of directives are thought to come from the priests more so than the gods they serve. In that fashion, our trip to the Sardar with Tarl Cabot in Priest-Kings of Gor confirms that in truth, the Caste of Initiates has taken a number of liberties in the name of what they claim to be their representation of the Priest-Kings. Indeed we find out through the words of Misk or Sarm, on a few occasions, that there would seem to be a number of so called Priest-King dictates of which the Priest-Kings have no knowledge.

It was common, of course, for Initiates to claim to speak for the Priest-Kings; indeed, it was presumably the calling of their caste to interpret the will of the Priest-Kings to men.
---Outlaw of Gor, 5:41

Laws of Priest-Kings vs Rules of Initiates
The actual laws of Priest-Kings are limited to the protection of the Gorean world against what these creatures consider to be destructive progress. Technology with regards to weapons and transportation is strictly controlled and as the reader can learn from the Priest-Kings page, subject to secret surveillance methods and the immediate execution of the offender.

"...It is Flame Death merely to possess a weapon of the interdicted sort. Sometimes bold individuals create or acquire such war materials and sometimes for as long as a year escape the Flame Death, but sooner or later they are struck down."...
---Tarnsman of Gor, 2:31-32

...armor, or chain mail perhaps, would have been a desirable addition to the accouterments of the Gorean warrior, but it had been forbidden by the Priest-Kings. ...
---Tarnsman of Gor, 3:48

As important a role as the Caste of Initiates will have in the decisions of a city's ruling body, it remains a matter of influence and spiritual advice rather than an actual direct legislative power, not that the former is any less powerful than the latter. The reader is given a rather clear insight to just how powerful the Caste of Initiates can be on numerous occasions, such as the deposing of Kazrak as Administrator of Ar, the swiftness of high administrators to meet their demands for gifts of money, gold, or human sacrifice in various situations in order to appease the wrath of Priest-Kings or avoid it.

All in all the laws which are specifically dictates of the men in white are of two types, the first clearly having to do with the very few parts of the Gorean world which Priest-Kings do keep a level of restriction on, and the other having more to do with ensuring their own importance in the Gorean structure, issuing orders about the rights of their own caste members and the manner in which they should be treated. It is understood, of course, that these rules must be respected in order that Priest-Kings might protect and favor the city.

Of the obligation to make the journey to the Sardar, for example, it is said that this particular rule has the consequence, if not the purpose, of ensuring variety in the slave stock of raiders/slavers who comb the Sardar areas and use the four annual fairs at the Sardar as their main source of income. Though the actual rule does not specify that the journey must be made at a time of fair, it is when most will chose to make it as groups organized by the Caste of Initiates themselves and caravans headed in that direction will be easier to find. It is interesting to note then, that the fairs are under the edicts of Initiates but governed by Merchants who likely pay the Caste of Initiates high offerings for the use of territory and opportunity.

On her nineteenth birthday, members of the Caste of Initiates had appeared at the door of the leather worker's hut.
It had been decided that she should now undertake the journey to the Sardar, which, according to the teachings of the Caste of Initiates, is enjoined on every Gorean by the Priest-Kings, an obligation which is to be fulfilled prior to their attaining their twenty-fifth year.
If a city does not see that her youth undertake this journey then, according to the teachings of the Initiates, misfortunes may befall the city.
It is one of the tasks of the Initiates to keep rolls, and determine that each youth, if capable, discharge this putative obligation to the mysterious Priest-Kings.
---Captive of Gor, 13:233

What we do know is that the Initiates of a given city keep a roll of those who have been to the Sardar and those who have yet to undertake the journey. The reader is told of how Initiates will visit families and indicate that it is time for their son or daughter to fulfill their obligation toward Priest-Kings. Though there is no obligation to make the pilgrimage at the moment specifically chosen by the Initiates, some city Initiates such as those of Teletus will go as far as rewarding those who do by paying them a gold coin.

It is a custom of the Initiates of Teletus, and of certain other islands and cities, if the youth agrees to go to the Sardar when they request it, then his, or her, family or guardians, if they wish it, will receive one tarn disk of gold.

Ute knew that the leather worker, and his companion, could well use this piece of gold.
---Captive of Gor, 13:233

Beyond the fear of misfortune befalling their city, the consequences of failing to see the Sardar before the prescribed age results in penalties for the individuals concerned, as the high councils and governments of the various cities attempt to protect themselves from the wrath of their gods.

Besides, she knew well that, some year, prior to her twenty-fifth year, such a journey must be undertaken by her. The Merchants of Teletus, controlling the city, would demand it of her, fearing the effects of the possible displeasure of the Priest-Kings on their trade. If she did not undertake the journey then, she would be simply, prior to her twenty-fifth birthday, removed from the domain of their authority, placed alone outside their jurisdiction, beyond the protection of their soldiers. Such an exile, commonly for a Gorean, is equivalent to enslavement or death. For a girl as beautiful as Ute it would doubtless have meant prompt reduction to shameful bondage, chains and the collar. ...
---Captive of Gor, 13:234

And of course, the basic formula of what happens to those who do not meet the demands of Priest-Kings is not unique to this pilgrimage. The consequences of raising the ire of the Priest-Kings by failing to perform one or the other task or failing to pay one or the other offering demanded by the Initiates will always invariably result in the prediction of horrible plagues and disasters striking the individual, his family and community. It does not truly matter if these catastrophes manifest themselves immediately or not. Eventually one or the other less favorable situation will occur and will be identified as the punishment.

Civil Law
Whereas the rules and edicts of the Caste of Initiates tend to be trans-Gorean, elements of civil law remain entirely a local matter. Of course the Sardar fair and other opportunities for legislators to exchange and share ideas and trends would allow a higher level of uniformity as it offers forums to discuss motives and implementation issues for new laws or new trends in the law.

...There is a saying on Gor that the laws of a city extend no further than its walls.
---Outlaw of Gor, 6:50

The choice of legislators, then, to have laws that are similar or not to other cities' laws remains entirely a matter of their choice though and officially, other than Merchant law which applies to trade and such and is kept universally uniform, each city will have its own laws, courts and degrees of strictness in application and/or the penalties for breaking the law.

In matters of civil rule and so long as the caste of Initiate's demands are met, the cities of Gor are ruled by councils formed of administrators, or, as we understand very early from Matthew Cabot's explanations to his son, by a war chief or ubar, in times of conflict. As the reader will note from the fact that the terms of rule of a Ubar are subject to the Warrior's Code as well as the very meaning of the word Ubar, this particular title would be reserved to a member of the Warrior Caste.

"The High Castes in a given City," said my father, "elect an administrator and council for stated terms.  In times of crisis, a war chief, or Ubar, is named, who rules without check and by decree until, in his judgment, the crisis is passed."

"In his judgment?" I asked skeptically.

"Normally the office is surrendered after the passing of the crisis," said my father.  "It is part of the Warrior's Code."
---Tarnsman of Gor, 3:42

The position of Administrator, however, may be held by a member of any caste. More commonly of course, this administrator will be of high caste but exceptions are found in a number of places such as Tharna for example, or perhaps less extraordinarily so, in trade centers, where merchant councils are commonly in power and merchant law in effect. It is understood of course, that in a world where the sword makes much of the law, the warrior caste will have a place of importance in all levels of government and the application of the law.

...The high castes are normally accounted five in number--the Warriors, the Builders, the Physicians, the Scribes, and the Initiates. The Initiates are sometimes thought of as the highest of the five high castes, and the Warriors as the least of the five high castes. In actual fact, the Warriors commonly produce the administrators and ubars for a city. It is not easy in a world such as this to deprive those who are skilled with weapons their share of authority. If it is not given to them, they will take it. ...
---Witness of Gor, 11:225

Traditionally, administrators will be elected whereas Ubars will be named. It may however remain a matter of semantics since the -election- of administrators is done only by representatives of the high castes of the city though it is said that the will of the populace cannot be disregarded as easily as it would seem. Another major difference will be that the whereas the ubar is supreme ruler, the Administrator is subject to approval by his council and may not single handedly legislate on matters.

Whereas it is only the men of high caste who elect members to the Council of the City, the gold of merchants and the will of the general populace is seldom disregarded in their choices. ...
---Assassin of Gor, 2:16

Matters of civil law will cover areas such as citizenship, rules of conduct, companionship, the dress codes of women, etiquette and allowances pertaining to the management of slaves in public places and many more areas depending on the size and importance of the city. While John Norman often uses the expression 'in most cities' when he speaks of a law, there are a number of laws which are clearly exclusive to one or the other city. And of course, the fact that the author speaks of 'most' Gorean cities, never implies that ALL cities will have this particular law. There is indeed a Gorean saying which states that the laws of a city extend only as far as its walls.

The citizens of a given city are sometimes subject to laws which do not apply to strangers and vice versa. Given the Gorean's natural distrust of strangers, a number of laws are in place that will determine the obligations of citizenship and the lines non-citizens should avoid crossing. Aside from perhaps entertainers and those donning the gold slash of the herald or messenger who seem to be protected in most cities, strangers are met with extreme caution, and of course outlaws, those without caste or city to claim, are met with impalement spears.

Interestingly, the matter of citizenship on Gor is subject to a pledge which must be renewed regularly, whether the individual was born to a given city or not. It is not enough, then, to be born to a city or to have parents which were. Indeed, true citizenship cannot be obtained until one has reached intellectual majority, and then, performed the city's ritual ceremony of coming of age which usually includes the oath to the Home Stone.

Young men and women of the city, when coming of age, participate in a ceremony which involves the swearing of oaths, and the sharing of bread, fire and salt. In this ceremony the Home Stone of the city is held by each young person and kissed. Only then are the laurel wreath and the mantle of citizenship conferred. ...

...Citizenship in most Gorean communities is not something accrued in virtue of the accident of birth but earned by virtue of intent and application. The sharing of a Home Stone is no light thing in a Gorean city.
---Slave Girl of Gor, 26:394

To claim a Home Stone that is one's own when it is not is a serious offense among Goreans.
---Slave Girl of Gor, 26:395

Discussion of this and other specific laws and areas of the law have been given their own space in this section. Laws pertaining to management of human property (slaves) are also listed on the laws page but further discussed on the human property page as well as the Slavery section of this guide.

In most Gorean cities, a number of buildings of central location house the law makers and officers as well as all legal documents and archives. The larger the city, of course, the more imposing the structures are expected to be. It is unlikely that a small town on the Vosk, for example, would have a Cylinder of Justice and a Cylinder of Documents comparable to those found in glorious Ar.

The cylinder was white, a color Goreans often associate with impartiality. More significantly, it indicated that the justice dispensed therein was the justice of Initiates.
--- Tarnsman of Gor, page 194

Beyond the two mentioned though, there certainly are parallel systems by which rules are made and that are interwoven into the fabric of Gorean laws, such as for example, Merchant law, the codes of the various castes, the codes of conduct which apply at sea, the internal structures of village councils and tribal groups and of course, the basic rules of honor and behavior which are often unwritten but seem no less official in how often they are brought up.

Merchant Law
Merchant Law, although a law system in and of itself, is used to regulate all aspects of trade throughout the Gorean civilized world. Indeed, though the author refers to a number of cities, towns and isles as free ports, being specifically under merchant law, he also mentions that this system is used throughout Gor when it comes to trade and merchanting of goods. This could signify that, for example, merchant law goes as far as being a law system which includes all aspects of the law and hence CAN be and is used as the only law system in cities where merchanting is the main source of income to a majority of the population (trade islands for example).

...There is a saying on Gor, "Gold has no caste." It is a saying of which the merchants are fond. Indeed, secretly among themselves, I have heard, they regard themselves as the highest caste on Gor, though they would not say so for fear of rousing the indignation of other castes. There would be something, of course, to be said for such a claim, for the merchants are often indeed in their way, brave, shrewd, skilled men, making long journeys, venturing their goods, risking caravans, negotiating commercial agreements, among themselves developing and enforcing a body of Merchant Law, the only common legal arrangements existing among the Gorean cities....
---Nomads of Gor, 9:84

If we adopt this theory and take into consideration the reference to universal use of Merchant Law in aspects of trade, we have to then consider the possibility that a city could have its own laws in areas outside of the trade while being subject to Merchant Law for all trade related areas. There would be a way then, to integrate Merchant Law into a city's own and individual law system.

The above explanation would seem a likely way to incorporate the saying that the laws of a city extend as far as its walls, the fact that Merchant Law is said to regulate trade throughout all civilized Gor AND the fact that certain cities are clearly stated to be under Merchant Law as if this law somehow ruled all aspects of said city's life.

Merchant Law is described and discussed more in depth on its own page of this section.

And then there are ... THE CODES ...

The ethical teachings of Gor, which are independent of the claims and propositions of the Initiates, amount to little more than the Caste Codes--collections of sayings whose origins are lost in antiquity....
---Tarnsman of Gor. 3:40-41

As discussed in the Castes page of this section, Gorean society is divided according to a system of castes. To be without caste in the Gorean city-state society, is to be without law and hence subject to impalement. There are a number of laws which pertain to alteration of caste and the obligation to practice one's trade. The laws, of course, apply to all castes and are separate from the codes of the caste.

A man who refused to practice his livelihood or strove to alter status without the consent of the Council of High Castes was, by definition, an outlaw and subject to impalement.
---Tarnsman of Gor, 3:45-46

Caste codes become an entire mapping of behavioral propriety based not on equality principles, but the very individual role of each member of the Gorean society. As explained in the Castes page of this guide, the Gorean world allows that different strokes for different folks is indeed not only acceptable, but desirable and so it is that the reader will often be in situations where the codes will be brought up in a manner which make them seem like laws.

And indeed, the codes of the various castes cannot be separated entirely from the laws of the cities as these codes will come into play in many situations for which the line between legal and illegal is considered thin such as, for example, capture, theft and even murder.

The codes of each caste constitute what may be otherwise described as a list of rules of conduct to which all caste members are held. They appear to be in the form of sayings, some rather clear, some more akin to a riddle understood perhaps only by those who have received the teachings of the caste to which it belongs.

Tarl Cabot refers to caste codes not as laws, but by using the expression 'ethical teachings' which does well in giving the reader a sense that these codes have much more to do with the sense of right than the actual legal rightness. The beauty of the Gorean world is perhaps that for the most part, what is ethically right is also what is legally right although it is sometimes difficult to slice between the law and the codes in situations where both need to be considered. Such would be the case for situations such as capture or submission and many other cases which may not appear as obvious as these two.

If it is not always clear to the reader which of the law or the caste codes will prevail in a given situation, one can almost always be sure that the Gorean without hesitation would sooner break the law than abandon his codes. Fortunately, the law makers of Gor, and more particularly those who are responsible for applying the law, take such things as caste codes into consideration when dealing with a particular difficulty.

In essence, the two should not be contradictory to each other though at times they may seem that way. In the exclusive right to perform certain acts, for example, perhaps a parallel can be drawn, to a certain extent, with the professional oath and codes of ethics of our own world. It is illegal, clearly, to sell narcotic drugs, unless one is a pharmacist. It is illegal to walk around a city with a gun in one's hand, unless one is a police officer. The reserved act, then, become subject to the codes of the profession to which it is exclusive and so long as these codes are respected, the right to accomplish the otherwise forbidden act is considered granted.

A rather excellent example of how this applies to the Gorean caste codes is the explanation given in Hunters of Gor about the treatment of thieves in Port Kar. On one hand, the caste exercises what might be perceived as quality control by disposing of non-caste thieves, and on the other, it has negotiated terms by which its trade may be practiced.

...The caste of thieves was important in Port Kar, and even honored. It represented a skill which in the city was held in high repute. Indeed, so jealous of their prerogatives were the caste of thieves that they often hunted thieves who did not belong to the caste, and slew them, throwing their bodies to the urts in the canals. Indeed, there was less thievery in Port Kar than there might have been were there no caste of thieves in the city. They protected, jealously, their own territories from amateur competition. Ear notching and mutilation, common punishment on Gor for thieves, were not found in Port Kar. The caste was too powerful. On the other hand, it was regarded as permissible to slay a male thief or take a female thief slave if the culprit could be apprehended within an Ahn of the theft. After an Ahn the thief, if apprehended and a caste member, was be remanded to the police of the arsenal. If found guilty in the court of the arsenal, the male thief would be sentenced, for a week to a year, to hard labor in the arsenal or on the wharves; the female thief would be sentenced to service, for a week to a year, in a straw-strewn cell in one of Port Kar's penal brothels. They are chained by the left ankle to a ring in the stone. Their food is that of a galley slave, peas, black bread and onions. If they serve well, however, their customers often bring them a bit of meat or fruit. Few thieves of Port Kar have not served time, depending on their sex, either in the arsenal or on the wharves, or in the brothels.
---Hunters of Gor, 22:304

A list of the various sayings and mentions of Caste Codes found scattered throughout the chronicles of the counter-earth has been added to this section separately.

The Administration of the Law

Generally speaking, Gorean civil law is made by whatever ruling body holds power at one given time and applied mainly in primitive fashion, by various magistrates. There does not seem very much room for doubt in this system as essentially, those trials the reader finds here and there are mostly a matter of sentencing since the accused has most often been caught in the act. There will, however, be mention of the law which was broken as well as what is known for that city/area to be the common penalty for this type of offense.

One will remember of course, that within the Gorean reality, the slave is not a citizen and hence not entitled to trial or defense per se. A great number of laws do pertain to what slaves may or may not do and failure to abide by the rules can be cause for punishment at the discretion of the free persons involved; these things do not require legal proceedings. It is also of note that a slave who participates in criminal activity by obeying the command of their master or another free person is almost invariably found to have done no wrong. Indeed, since the slave is to obey without question, she would be considered to have done the right thing no matter what the command is.

If the events found along Tarl Cabot's journey are a reflection of what is most common, one would have to conclude that criminals end up in collars and chains, be it the collar of a work chain or a pleasure garden. Men will more often be executed by whatever means is popular in the area or sent to work chains temporarily for more minor crimes, whereas women are more likely to be enslaved, especially if they are beautiful.

Rulers - The Ubar
As explained above, the title of Ubar stands for 'war chief' which explains why it is said to be used in the context of crisis or war. The very terms of a Ubar's rule are subject to the codes of the caste of warriors, which would indicate that indeed, the person holding this title would be of this caste. Indeed, who else might concern himself with the codes of the caste?

"The High Castes in a given city," said my father, "elect an administrator and council for stated terms. In times of crisis, a war chief, or Ubar, is named, who rules without check and by decree until, in his judgment, the crisis is passed."

"In his judgment?" I asked skeptically.

"Normally the office is surrendered after the passing of the crisis," said my father. "It is part of the Warrior's Code."

"But what if he does not give up the office?" I asked. I had learned enough of Gor by now to know that one could not always count on the Caste Codes being observed.

"Those who do not desire to surrender their power," said my father, "are usually deserted by their men. The offending war chief is simply abandoned, left alone in his palace to be impaled by the citizens of the city he has tried to usurp."

I nodded, imagining a palace, empty save for one man sitting alone on his throne, clad in his robes of state, waiting for the angry people outside the gates to break through and work their wrath.

"But," said my father, "sometimes such a war chief, or Ubar, wins the hearts of his men, and they refuse to withdraw their allegiance."

"What happens then?" I asked.

"He becomes a tyrant," said my father, "and rules until eventually, in one way or another, he is ruthlessly deposed." My father's eyes were hard and seemed fixed in thought. It was not mere political theory he spoke to me. I gathered that he knew of such a man. "Until," he repeated slowly, "he is ruthlessly deposed."
---Tarnsman of Gor, 3:42-43

According to the codes, then, the rule of the Ubar lasts as long as the crisis does, at which time the office is surrendered. There are, through the journeys of Tarl Cabot on the Counter-Earth, a number of Ubars who rule over countries that may not appear to be at war or in crisis situation. Perhaps it is not so easy for the reader to determine what may or may not constitute political conflict serious enough to justify the naming of a Ubar. Certainly, we are made aware of the case of Marlenus who quite simply did not feel he should be stepping down and refused to do so, but overall the Ubars we do meet are indeed rulers of countries involved in some level of war.

"To truly see a Ubar," I said, "to look into his heart can be a fearful thing."
"Only one can sit upon the throne," said Msaliti.
"That is a saying of the north," I said.
"I know," said Msaliti. "But it is a saying that is also known east of Schendi."
"Even east of Schendi," I smiled, "the throne is a lonely country."
"He who sits upon the throne, it is said," said Msaliti, "is the most alone of men."
I nodded. Perhaps it was just as well not to have looked too deeply into the eyes of Bila Huruma. It is not always desirable to look deeply into the eyes of a Ubar.
---Explorers of Gor, 18:237

Ubars wear robes of purple, considered to be the color of the highest honor. The Ubar's consort or companion is called the Ubara and although we do have a particular situation in Talena's holding the title of Ubara without having a Ubar, this would not be the usual scenario. The title used for female rulers on Gor, is that of Tatrix. The Tatrix is indeed the ruler whereas the Ubara is usually the ruler's companion.

The case of Talena's obtaining the title of Ubara had as much to do with her family background as it did with the powers of the forces of Cos in whose interest it was to have a somewhat familiar if manipulable figure in a high position in the City of Ar. In this unusual case, a family which is no longer in power and a woman whose ties to this family had once been legally and very publicly severed ends up on a throne by claim of being some form of royal heir. It is understood and explained that the enemy forces of Cos, having essentially taken over the city, recognize the Ubara's title and role. The reader of course understands that as Talena was indeed, instrumental in Cos's victory, her situation of Ubara without a Ubar is easier to come to terms with. Further, once it is made clear to the reader that the leadership of Ar is a matter of smoke and mirrors, trying to understand how to fit the existence of this Ubara into the Gorean Leadership principles no longer seems important. There is nothing usual or habitual about the situation of the treacherous Talena in her own City and a rule cannot be made from this exception.

Our eyes met.
I then, truly, for the first time looked into the eyes of Bila Huruma.
He sat upon the high platform, above the others, solitary and isolated, the necklace of panther teeth about his neck, the lamps below him.
I sensed then, for a moment, what it must be to be a Ubar. It was then, in that instant, that I first truly saw him, as he was, and as he must be. I looked then on loneliness and decision, and power. The Ubar must contain within himself dark strengths. He must be capable of doing, as many men are not, what is necessary.
Only one can sit upon the throne, as it is said. And, as it is said, he who sits upon the throne is the most alone of men.
It is he who must be a stranger to all men, and to whom all men must be strangers.
The throne indeed is a lonely country.
Many men desire to live there but few, I think, could bear its burdens.
Let us continue to think of our Ubars as men much like ourselves, only perhaps a bit wiser, or stronger, or more fortunate. That way we may continue to be comfortable with them, and, to some extent, feel ourselves their superior. But let us not look into their eyes too closely, for we might see there that which sets them apart from us.
It is not always desirable to look deeply into the eyes of a Ubar.
---Explorers of Gor, 19:242-243

In researching the possible origins of the word Ubar, an initial tidbit of information which seemed to indicate there was a possible German root was fairly quickly abandoned when the following information was found. Our thanks to Simon for the research and commentary on this particular word.

Now, the word UBAR is not German. In the German language the word Über, with an accent on the U, means "over, above, beyond", but the pronunciation is quite different from UBAR - über is pronounced with an UE as in the French Rue, and ends with an IR as in English Sir; while UBAR, without the accents, sounds like OO in good and ends like AR in car. The word UBAR, I think, is Arabic.

In fact, the story of Ubar is a Gorean tale in itself.

Some two thousand years before Christ, in southern part of the Arabic peninsula, known as Rub Al-Khali, the Empty Quarter, there lived a people known as the 'Ad, who made enormous profits by trading frankincense, a sweet smelling incense then as valuable as gold, between the world centers of Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Damascus, and beyond to the western Mediterranean. Their city, built by the legendary Shaddad ibn Ad as an "imitation of Paradise," was renowned for its imposing architecture, its vast groves of fruit trees and its fabulous wealth. An historian, Al-Hamdani, writing in the sixth century A.D., hailed The City of the Towers as first among the treasures of ancient Arabia.

It was called Ubar.

But great wickedness flourished in Ubar. Being sent to 'Ad, the prophet Hud summoned his people, just like all the other prophets had done, to believe in Allah without ascribing partners to Him and to obey him, but the people reacted to Hud with animosity. They accused him of imprudence, untruthfulness, and attempting to change the system their ancestors had established. When Hud warned his people, they commented that his words were a customary device of the ancients and they were very confident that nothing would happen to them. Allah had given the 'Ad a stature tall among the nations, and the people of 'Ad took great pride in their strength and stature and they used to say, "Who is superior to us in strength?" Finally the mighty Allah warned them - "Did they not see that Allah, who created them was superior to them in strength?" But they continued to reject Our Signs!" And so, the legend tells us, Allah carried out His punishment of strong winds that lasted seven nights and eight days, and the city of Ubar was totally wiped out and buried in a huge and unlivable desert with great sand dunes.

The myth is mentioned in The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, and several expeditions, in 1930, 1947 and 1953, tried to find what T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) had called "the Atlantis of the Sands". But in 1980, a Los Angeles filmmaker and archaeological enthusiast named Nicholas Clapp began researching the history of Ubar and planning an archaeological expedition. Clapp used ancient maps and literature, and thought the general location for Ubar would be the Empty Quarter in southern Oman. This was still a dauntingly large area to search, but using pictures taken from several spacecraft, including radar and optical cameras carried by Challenger in October 1984, his team member, Dr. Ronald Blom, a geologist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, managed to find the probable site and on February 5th, 1992, the expedition led by Clapp uncovered a large octagonal fortress with thick walls ten feet high and eight tall towers at the corners. The archaeologists also found Greek, Roman, and Syrian pottery, the oldest of which was dated at more than 4,000 years old. The discovery of these types of artifacts indicated that this was indeed a major center for trade and likely the fabled Ubar.

One startling result of the excavation was that it appears that Ubar did meet with a catastrophic end, as many of the legends describe. The excavation revealed a giant limestone cavern beneath the fortress, and it is likely that Ubar may have been destroyed when a large portion of it collapsed into the cavern. The city, indeed, was actually swallowed by the desert.

A strong people that perished on account of their arrogance - is that a Gorean tale?

I really think John Norman, romantic at heart, took much inspiration from these Arabic legends.
From a letter to Nicole from Simon,
'About Ubar',
September 2002

More information can be found on the NASA Observatorium site, and on the Islam 101 homepage.

Rulers - Administrators and Councils
In times of relative peace and stability, the administration of the Gorean city-state is the responsibility of a council of administrators elected by the high castes of the city. What we understand of this type of government is that the administrator or leader of the council does not retain sole power and that decisions in matters of the state are subject to vote by council.

...In many cities only members of the high castes may belong to the city's high council. Most Gorean cites are governed by an executive, the Administrator, in conjunction with the high council. ...
---Slave Girl of Gor, 5:114

It remains a matter of perspective what constitutes a state of peace on Gor and more often than not the reader will find that council government is more prevalent in trade centers, peasant villages and cities where a relative neutrality is important to maintain open markets and ensure the city's survival.

There are few examples of council-led cities which are not governed by merchant councils but the actual type of council which Matthew Cabot describes in Tarnsman of Gor, Ko-Ro-Ba being first in our memory. The City of Port Kar's council of captains government would also fall into this category though membership to the council is adapted to the Port Kar reality. Indeed in a city where shipping feeds the majority of the population, it is fairly easy to see why the rulers would be those with the largest fleets.

As is the case for Port Kar, council governments seem to shape themselves after the individual character of the city, placing the power in the hands of those more likely to influence growth and stability.

For the sake of trivia, we offer a list of cities, their mode of government and leaders as we find them on or journey through the counter earth.

Rulers - The Tatrix
On a world where the biological dominance of the male takes its full importance in all aspects of life, it is difficult to conceive that a system would exist that allows a woman in a position of the highest power such as the one the title of Tatrix confers.

There are a number of theories on the author's purpose in inserting these societies into the Gorean world, the most obvious being that they stand as proof that the Gorean outlook on the roles of gender are indeed true.

The city of Tharna is a particularly hard example of things gone sour as the reader is given an account of gradual manipulation and allowances made by weak men until the balance of natural order itself is completely upturned and the women take complete power. The description of Tharna under Tatrix rule screams of misery as the habitual colorful walls and streets of the city are described as bland and dull, much as its neutralized men seem to be. Again a symbolic display of this state being unnatural not only to the dull, lifeless men of Tharna, but also, and perhaps more significantly so, to the bitter and angry women who rule it.

The balance of mutual regard is always delicate and, statistically, it is improbable that it can long be maintained throughout an entire population. Accordingly, gradually exploiting, perhaps unconsciously, the opportunities afforded by the training of children and the affections of their men, the women of Tharna improved their position considerably over the generations, also adding to their social power the economic largesse of various funds and inheritances.

Eventually, largely via the conditioning of the young and the control of education, those superiorities which the female naturally possesses came to be enlarged on at the expense of those possessed by the male. And just as in our own world it is possible to condition entire populations to believe what is, from the standpoint of another population, incomprehensible and absurd, so in Tharna both the men and the women came eventually to believe the myths or the distortions advantageous to female dominance. Thus it was, gradually and unnoticed, that the gynocracy of Tharna came to be established, and honored with the full weight of tradition and custom, those invisible bonds heavier than chains because they are not understood to exist.

...In a city such as Tharna the men, taught to regard themselves as beasts, as inferior beings, seldom develop the full respect for themselves essential to true manhood. But even more strangely, the women of Tharna do not seem content under the gynocracy. Although they despise men and congratulate themselves on their more lofty status it seems to me that they, too, fail to respect themselves. Hating their men, they hate themselves.
---Outlaw of Gor, Ch 22:205-206

Similar accounts of greed and abuse of power are spoken of in both the cases of Corcyrus and Ty although not to the extent of eliminating all men from positions of authority. Nonetheless, there are no Tatrix-ruled cities on Gor that seem to survive what Gor simply sees as the natural order.

Officers of the Law - Gorean Magistrates
The most often mentioned categories of law officers are magistrates and guards, the former being a sub-caste of the scribes, and the latter of course, composed of men of the scarlet caste. Under the more general title of magistrate are found a number of various sub-groups named after their earth counterparts and whose specialty are likely to be similar.

...Many castes, incidentally, have branches and divisions. Lawyers and Scholars, for example, and Record Keepers, Teachers, Clerks, Historians and Accountants are all Scribes.
---Assassin of Gor,15:208

Members of the Caste of Scribes, and sometimes referred to as 'Scribes of the law' in the same fashion as historians are called 'Scribes of the past', magistrates are found in most situations the where legalities are involved, whether this be in matters of a citizen's rights or in matters of crime. Much like the magistrates of earth, a number of titles are used to designate these officers, depending on their various function or area of jurisdiction.

...Most ports and islands on Thassa, of course, are not managed by the Merchants, but, commonly, by magistrates appointed by the city councils. In Port Kar, my city, the utilization of the facilities of the port is regulated by a board of four magistrates, the Port Consortium, which reports directly to the Council of Captains, which, since the downfall of the warring Ubars, is sovereign in the city. ...
---Hunters of Gor, 3:43

...The fellow who had said this wore the blue of the scribes. He may even have been a scribe of the law.
---Mercenaries of Gor, 19:244

The term judge is used on numerous occasions in a context similar to the one with which we are familiar. The reader will also find mention of an archon of records, merchant magistrates, slave archon and wharf praetors. Magistrates are seen policing wharves, inspecting work chains, recording crimes, partaking in public sentencing such as declaring enslavement in the case of the lovely Lady Tina of Lydius, but also, in clearly less white collar type tasks, on at least one occasion, in the application of a death sentence.

...Lying on the ground, bound hand and foot, still clad in the white robe, was Talena. The point of the sharpened impaling post lay near her. As the tarn had landed, her executioners, two burly, hooded magistrates, had scrambled to their feet and fled to safety. The Initiates themselves do not execute their victims, as the shedding of blood is forbidden by those beliefs they regard as sacred. Now, helpless, Talena lay almost within the wing span of my tarn, so near to me and yet a world away.
---Tarnsman of Gor, 19:204

The color associated with justice on Gor is white. The color associated with power, on Gor, is purple. Merchant magistrates are described on at least one occasion as wearing robes of white trimmed with two borders, one of gold and one of purple. This might make the reader wonder if indeed the merchant magistrate is of the merchants or if the white is simply the white of justice and bordered by the gold of the powers he represents.

...Behind the wagon, in the white robes trimmed with gold and purple of Merchant Magistrates, came five men. I recognized them as judges.
---Hunters of Gor, 3:49

In another situation, that of a slaver camp, the law officers are described as wearing the colors of the caste of slavers on their sleeve, again an indication that when the authority or power is held by a specific group in a given area, the officers of the law will be identified by a badge or other symbol of the color of the ruling caste.

In a moment or two, I stopped a few yards from a registration desk. There one of Ina's pursuers, I recognized him from earlier, was making inquiries of one of the five camp prefects, fellows under the camp praetor. The perfects are identified by five slash marks, alternately blue and yellow, the slavers' colors, on their left sleeve, the praetor himself by nine such stripes, and lesser officials by three. Turning about, apparently alerted by the prefect's notice, the fellow with one hand suddenly turned the prefect's desk to its side so that it stood wall-like between us, and hurried behind it.
---Vagabonds of Gor, 47:453-454

Other elements of the magistrate's outfit are mentioned at least once when we are told of magistrates wearing their 'fillet of office' and carrying their 'wand of office'. The wand is further spoken of as more than likely hiding a blade.

...Both magistrates wore their robes, and fillets, of office. They also carried their wands of office, which, I suspect, from the look of them, and despite the weapons laws of Cos, contained concealed blades. I was pleased to hope that these fellows were such as to put the laws of Ar before the ordinances of Cos. ...
---Magicians of Gor, 26:442

Magistrate: from the Middle English magestrat, from the Latin magistratus, magistracy, magistrate, from magistr-, magister master, political superior -- 14th century.
An official entrusted with administration of the laws: a) as a principal official exercising governmental powers over a major political unit (as a nation) b) a local official exercising administrative and often judicial functions c) a local judiciary official having limited original jurisdiction especially in criminal cases.

That her ear had been notched indicated that, by a magistrate, she had been found thief.
---Hunter of Gor, 2:22-23

Various types of magistrates found on Gor and their earth definitions:

Archon – Latin, from Greek archon, from present participle of archein -- circa 1579
1) a chief magistrate in ancient Athens
2) a presiding officer

...One of the two magistrates, he who was senior, Tolnar, of the second Octavii, an important gens but one independent of the well-known Octavii, sometimes spoken of simply as the Octavii, or sometimes as the first Octavii, deputy commissioner in the records office, much of which had been destroyed in a recent fire, was at the other portal. His colleague, Venlisius, a bright young man who was now, by adoption, a scion of the Toratti, was with him. Venlisius was in the same office. He was records officer, or archon of records, for the Metellan district, in which we were located. Both magistrates wore their robes, and fillets, of office....
---Magicians, 26:441-442

Aedile – Latin aedilis, from aedes temple -- circa 1540
An official in ancient Rome in charge of public works and games, police, and the grain supply.

...Two days ago, aediles had come to the camp to inspect the chains. They found none which contained illicit prisoners. No mention was made of the fact that a third of the chains was absent. The next day the auspices had been taken, and, seemingly, all had gone well. The chains in camp were already back at work. Preceding the time of taking the auspices, of course, and until they have been taken, things are very quiet. ...
---Dancer of Gor, 25:349

Praetor – Middle English pretor, from Latin praetor -- 15th century
An ancient Roman magistrate ranking below a consul and having chiefly judicial functions.

Quaestor – Middle English questor, from Latin quaestor, from quaerere -- 14th century
One of numerous ancient Roman officials concerned chiefly with financial administration.

...Some may have been as innocent as those I had lured; others might have been murderers and brigands, suitably enchained for the expiation of sentences, their custody having been legally transferred to Ionicus, my master, at the payment of a prisoner's fee, by the writ of a praetor or, in more desperate cases, by the order of a quaestor....
---Dancer of Gor, 24:332

Prefect – Middle English, from Middle French, from Latin praefectus, from past participle of praeficere to place at the head of, from prae- + facere to make -- 14th century
1) any of various high officials or magistrates of differing functions and ranks in ancient Rome
2) a chief officer or chief magistrate

I looked about, through the curtain, at the guests of the Lady Florence, other than the Lady Melpomene. The fellow from Venna, clad in white and gold, was Philebus, a bounty creditor. He was known to the merchants of several cities. Such men buy bills at discount and then set themselves to collect, as they can, their face value. They are tenacious in their trade. I did not know the business of the two men from Ar. They were Tenalion, and his man, Ronald. The fourth man was Brandon. He was from Vonda. He was a prefect in that city. His certifications on certain documents would be important. The two ladies, both of Vonda, were Leta and Perimene, both friends of the Ladies Florence and Melpomene. As free citizens of Vonda they could witness legal transactions.
---Fighting Slave of Gor, 22:277

Justice - The Courts
The Gorean courts are glimpsed on occasions few and far between.

They resemble, at times, the courts of Kings where subjects would bring their disputes and complaints for resolution by the Ubar and where the judgment and sentence are pronounced then and there by this one and same Ubar. Such is the case in Ushindi where the reader spends a little time in the court of Bila Huruma.

In the more 'civilized' parts of Gor, they are rooms where prisoners are tried and sentenced by a judge upon testimony of witnesses and where the accused has some level of ability to defend himself. The few times we do see trials though, it always appears to be that the accused was actually caught in the act. Is it perhaps that Goreans do not bring people to justice unless their guilt is all but a proven thing already? From an outsider's perspective it certainly seems that way for even in those cases where the verdict did not seem pre-determined, the evidence brought to the court is so overwhelming that one wonders if they are at a trial or simply at a sentence hearing.

The judge gave a signal and the long handle of the rack, fitting through a rectangular hole in the axle, moved again.
The girl winced, but she did not cry out.
"Look again carefully upon the accused," said Ibn Saran. I saw her eyes upon me. "Was it he who struck Suleiman Pasha?"
"It was he," she said.
"Are you absolutely certain?" he asked.
"Yes," she said.
"It is enough," said the judge. He gave a signal. The handle spun back. The girl's body fell into the network of knotted ropes....
---Tribesmen of Gor, 6:114

In other cases the sentencing is done by a judge from a wagon which is pulled to a public and central area of the town, as is the case with the Lady Tina of Lydius (see quote from Hunters of Gor below). In this particular sentencing, the sentence of slavery is immediately carried out by the branding and sale of the culprit.

Although not considered to be citizens, slaves can be used as witnesses in the Gorean court room, but it is said that their testimony is usually taken under torture. It might be noted though that slaves are said to not be usually allowed to handle legal documents.

Justice - Sentencing
The penalties for various crimes on Gor depends mainly on three variables: the nature of the crime committed and its importance to the population of the area, local customs and culture and the availability of torture/execution resources.

As is usual in most societies, the nature of the crime committed determines the severity of the sentence. Note though that certain crimes are considered extremely serious in one area of Gor, whereas they may looked upon as minor in others. In the land of the Wagon Peoples, for example, to slay a bosk is considered the highest of crimes. Similarly, in the Tahari this title belongs to the destroying of a well. Certainly in both cases the offense consists of destroying what is considered this particular society's means of survival which explains how it can be given so much importance.

Sentencing often takes the shape of the crime in that it is ensured that the criminal is physically unable to repeat it. Thieves may have their hand cut off, liars may have their tongue removed etc. In the case of non-capital offenses at least, penalties such as these seem to be the norm.

The next fellow had lied about his taxes. He would be hung, a hook through his tongue, in a market. His properties were to be confiscated and distributed, half to be given to members of his village and half to the state. It was conjectured that, when he was removed from the pole, if he were still alive, he would be more careful in his accounts.
---Explorers of Gor, 18:231

Executions are also often a matter of both the type of crime and the local culture. Bosk slayers, for example, are staked out in the path of the bosk herd to be trampled, Rencers feed their prisoners to the marsh predators while in cities, criminals are often either sent to the local work chain (or if they are women the penal brothels), hamstrung, put to the public's amusement in arena games or then executed by impalement, tharlarion oil or other more 'sophisticated' measures.

"Chain them and hang them in iron collars at the inn!" said a fellow. Sometimes a man lasts two or three days in this fashion.
"Chain them on the boards," cried another. That is a similar form of punishment. In it the victim is fastened, by collars and shackles, on structures of parallel, upright boards, vertical platforms, in effect, mounted on posts. These structures are most common in harbor cities, near the wharves. The fellow who had made the suggestion was probably from the river port of Ar's Station. In the country, impalement is often used, the pole usually being set up near a crossroads.
"Let them be trampled by tharlarion," said a fellow.

"No, let them be torn apart by them," said another. In this fashion ropes are tied separately to the victim’s wrists and ankles, these ropes then attached to the harnesses of two different tharlarion, which are, of course, then driven in opposite directions.
"Yes, that is better," agreed the first.

If one shares a Home Stone with the victim, of course, the punishment is often more humane. A common punishment where this mitigating feature obtains is to strip the victim, tie him to a post, beat him with rods and then behead him. This, like the hanging in chains, the exposure on boards, and such, is a very ancient modality of execution.
---Renegades of Gor, 1:14-15

In all types of these crimes, women seem to have more chances of surviving their crime, especially if they are beautiful. There are many indications that women who commit crimes are looked at as women who need to be put in their place and that it would be wasteful not to spare them and make use of their natures for the pleasures of men. Gorean men particularly enjoy being served by women who have wronged them, though they do not seem to linger in a payback type of attitude. Rather, they expect the slave to learn to be pleasing and perform with perfection, as is expected of any slave.

Slavery then, for women at least, can certainly represent a form of escape, especially if one considers that it is a natural state for women. Although of course, they would not too readily admit this, and certainly Gorean slavery is not an easy road, but their stories usually show that in time, these women blossom and find heights of wholeness that sometimes makes their sentence of enslavement feel a lot more like a chance to find themselves.

"It is a judicial enslavement," he said.
With Rim and Thurnock, moving in the crowd, I craned for a look.
I saw first the girl, stumbling. She was already stripped. Her hands were tied behind her back. Something, pushing her from behind, had been fastened on her neck. Behind her came a flat-topped wagon, of some four feet in height. It was moved by eight tunicked, collared slave girls, two to each wheel, pushing at the wheels. It was guided by a man walking behind it, by means of a lever extending back, under the wagon, from the front axle. Flanking the wagon, on both sides, were the musicians, with their drums and flutes. Behind the wagon, in the white robes trimmed with gold and purple of merchant magistrates, came five men. I recognized them as judges.
A pole extended from the front of the wagon, some eight or nine feet. There was, at its termination, a semicircular leather cushion, with a short chain. The girl's neck had been forced back against the cushion, and then the chain had been fastened, securing her, standing, in place. As the wagon moved forward, she was, thus, forced to walk before it. The pole, projecting out from the wagon, isolated her, keeping her from other human beings.
The music became louder.
I suddenly recognized the girl. It was she who had cut my purse earlier in the day, the sensuous little wench, whose ear had been notched. I gather that she had not had such good fortune later in the day. I well knew what the punishment was for a Gorean female, following her second conviction for theft.
On the flat-topped wagon, fastened to one side on a metal plate, already white with heat, was a brazier, from which protruded the handles of two irons. Also mounted on the wagon was a branding rack, of the sort popular in Tyros. It was, I conjectured another instance of the cultural minglings which characterized the port of Lydius.
The wagon stopped on the broad street, before the wharves, where the crowd could gather about.
A judge climbed, on wooden stairs at the back of the wagon, to its surface. The other judges stood below him, on the street.
The girl pulled at the leather binding fiber fastening her wrists behind her back. She moved her neck and head in the confinement of the chain and leather, at the end of the pole.
"Will the Lady Tina of Lydius deign to face me?" asked the judge, using the courteous tones and terminology with which Gorean free women, often inordinately honored, are addressed.
I looked quickly at Rim and Thurnock. "Tina!" I said.
They grinned. "It must be she," said Rim, "who drugged Arn, and took his gold."
Thurnock grinned.
I, too, smiled. It must indeed be she. Arn, I supposed, would have much relished being here.
I suspected that little Tina would cut few purses in the future.
"Will the Lady Tina of Lydius please deign to face me?" asked the judge, with the same courtesy as before.
The girl turned in the chain and leather to face her judge, standing removed from her and above her, in his white robes, trimmed with two borders, one of gold, the other of purple.
"You have been tried, and convicted, of the crime of theft," intoned the judge.
"She stole two gold pieces from me!" cried a man standing in the crowd. "And I had witnesses!"
"It took an Ahn to catch her," said another man, laughing.
The judge paid no attention to these speakings.
"You have been tried and convicted of the crime of theft," said the judge, "for the second time."
The girl's eyes were terrified.
"It is now my duty, Lady Tina," said the judge, "to pass sentence upon you."
She looked up at him.
"Do you understand?" he asked.
"Yes," she said, "my judge."
"Are you prepared now, Lady Tina of Lydius," asked the judge, to hear your sentence?"
"Yes," she said, regarding him, "my judge."
"I herewith sentence you, Lady Tina of Lydius," said the judge, "to slavery."
There was a shout of pleasure from the crowd. The girl's head was down. She had been sentenced.
"Bring her to the rack," said the judge.
The man who had guided the wagon from the rear, and had now locked the brake on the front wheels, went to the bound girl. He unfastened the chain that bound her against the curved leather at the end of the pole,; and, holding her by the arm, her wrists still tied behind her, led her to the rear of the wagon, and up the steps. She then stood beside her judge, barefoot on the flat-topped, wooden wagon. Her head was down.
"Lady Tina," requested the judge, "go to the rack."
Wordlessly, the girl went and stood by the rack, her back to the curved iron.
The man who had brought her to the wagon now knelt before her, locking metal clasps on her ankles.
He then went behind her, and unbound her wrists. "Place your hands over your head," he said. She did so. "Bend your elbows," he said. She did so. "Lie back," he then said, supporting her. She did so, and was stretched over the curved iron. He then took her wrists and pulled her arms almost straight. He then locked her wrists in metal clasps, similar to those, though smaller, which confined her ankles. Her head was down. He then bent to metal pieces, heavy, curved and hinged, which were attached to the sides of the rack, and a bit forward. Each piece consisted of two curved, flattish bands, joining at the top. He lifted them, and dropped them into place. Then, with two keys, hanging on tiny chains at the sides, he tightened the bands. They were vises. She might now be branded on either the left or right thigh. There was ample room, I noted, between the bands, on either side, to press the iron. She was held perfectly. Her tanned thigh could not protest so much as by the slightest tremor. She would be marked cleanly.
The man, placing heavy gloves on his hands, withdrew from the brazier a slave iron. Its tip was a figure some inch and a half high, the first letter in cursive script, in the Gorean alphabet, of the expression Kajira.
It is a beautiful letter.
The judge looked down upon the Lady Tina of Lydius. She, fastened over the rack, stripped, looked up at him, in his robes, those with two borders, one of gold, the other of purple. Her eyes were wild.
"Brand the Lady Tina of Lydius," he said. "Brand her slave." Then he turned, and departed from the platform.
The girl gave a terrible scream.
There was a shout from the crowd.
The man now, swiftly, brutally, released the girl, spinning open the vises, and dropping them against the rack, unfastening her wrists and ankles, and dragged her to her feet. Her hair was over her face. She was weeping.
The man's hand was strong on her arm. "Here is a nameless slave!" he cried. "What am I bid for her?"
---Hunters of Gor, 3:48-51

Many of the various forms of punishments and executions as found within the Gor books are listed on a separate page of this section.

Justice - Duels and Challenges
When a dispute occurs between two men, it is often found acceptable for them to settle this dispute by means of a duel or challenge of sorts. These duels and challenges as well as their stake or outcome are in fact often legally regulated, subject to rather strict rules and accepted as a form of justice.

The form of duel most often found within the pages of the Gorean saga is probably that which is provided by the codes of the caste of warriors and which states that when a man draws a weapon against one of this caste, it is within the warrior's right to slay him. Similarly, another element of the codes of this particular caste states that the warrior takes by the sword what pleases him, thus legitimizing dueling to death in order to obtain something which the opponent has, be it land, a slave or other.

If the challenges between warriors are most common, other forms of dueling are certainly no less interesting and although not all duels involve the killing of one's opponent, from the splendor of love wars between the men of the wagons and those of Turia, to the smaller scale duels of Torvaldsland or the rites of peasant village laws, a challenge is never issued lightly as even without losing one's life to it, the stakes are often quite high. Various forms of duels and challenges are listed on a separate page of this section.